The nyquist theorem is one of the deciding factor in data communication.

The nyquist theorem is iodin of the decision making factor in data communication.PART AQ1. The Nyquist theorem is unrivaled of the deciding factor in data communication. The fibre optics as well as the horseshit wires atomic number 18 communication mediums. Do you think the theorem is valid for the theatrical role optics or for the pig wires.Ans. Nyquist theorem is valid for both fibre optics and copper wires this is because the Niquist theorem is rigorously depend upon the mathematic function and has not every concern with the transmitting media for communication. correspond to Henry Nyquist, a perfect channel has a bounded transmitting capacity. He derived an equation expressing the maximum data deem for a finite bandwidth noiseless channel. Nyquist said that if an ar minuterary presage has been run through a low-pass tense of bandwidth B, the filtered signal undersurface be completely reconstructed by making but 2Bsamples per secant. Sampling the line faster than 2B times per second is pointless because the higher frequence components that such(prenominal) sampling could rec over prep be already been filtered out(a). If the signal consists of L discrete levels, Nyquists theorem statesMaximum issue vagabond =2* Bandwidth log2 L.For noisy channelCapacity = bandwidth * log2 (1+SNR), where SNR is signal to noise ratio.Q2. dissonance affects all the signals which are in that respect in air. on that point are close to communicating modulation techniques. Noise affects which of the modulation technique the near.Ans. Noise is specify as the disturbance in the signal. When data is send over the profit in the form of signal, due the various natural or abnormal circumstances produce disturbance in the signals which is called noise. The noise is various kinds such as thermal noise, crosstalk, and impulse noise. Noise affects all the signals but there are some modulation techniques which are utilise to reduce the noise. These techniques a re Amplitude modulation Frequency modulation Phase modulationThe bounteousness modulation is affected most by the noise this is because there is the miscellanea in only amplitude and the amplitude is affected easily by the noise. Q3. An analog signal carries 4 bits in each signal element. If 10,000 signal elements are sent per sec, find the Baud send and Bit Rate? Ans.Given signal carries r =4Signal element s=myriadLet N be the bit come outWe jockey that S = N*(1/r) N= S*r N= 10000* 4 N=40000 bpsBit tell is equals to 40000bpsQ4. What are the reasons for the smirch caused in transmission system media? How the perfection can be measured?Ans. There are certain reasons for the imperfection caused by the transmission media. These reasons are severalise below Attenuation All the transmission media has some sort of qualifying of signal i.e. called attenuation which make then imperfect. During the transmission of the signal from one place to an different the loss or energy is occ urred which reduce the boilers suit strength of the signals which is called attenuation. For this is reason amplifier is used in various place in the transmission. Noise Noise is the basically the disturbance which is produced in the signal when the signal send over the transmission media then the natural and un natural humor affect the signal such as pollution etc. So that some kind of aberration is occur in the signal. Every transmission media is affected with the noise which makes the signal imperfect. Distortion Distortion means that the swop in the signal. Due to some circumstance there must be change in the signal. The signal whitethorn deviate from actual one this is called distortion.The perfection can be measure in the form the supra three. A transmission media which has less attenuation, less noise and less distortion that transmission media is called perfect. Q5. There are numerous multiplexing techniques available. What in your opinion is the most appropriate multipl exing technique for the vulcanized fiber optics as well as copper wires?Ans. Multiplexing is the process of converting n signal to the one. There are various technique but two basic technique are FDM(Frequency parting multiplexing) TDM(Time Division multiplexing) wavelength Division multiplexingIn fiber optics multiplexing the best technique used is called WDM Wavelength portion multiplexing. The basic principle of WDM on fibers is that n fibers come together at an visual chamber, each with its energy parade at a dissimilar wavelength. The four beams are combined onto a single shared fiber for transmission to a distant destination. At the far end, the beam is spilt up over as may fibers as there were on the comment side. Each output fiber contains a short special- constructed core that filters out all but one wavelength. The resulting signals can be routed to their destination or recombined in distinguishable ways for additional multiplexed transport.In the case of the copp er wire Frequency division multiplexing technique is used. First the voice impart are raised in frequency, each by a different amount. Then they can be combined because no two bring now occupy the same portion of the spectrum. Notice that even though there are gaps (guard bands) in the midst of the channels, there is some overlap between adjacent channels because the filters do not have sharp edges. notwithstanding nowadays there is use of the Time division multiplexing is used which is particularly deal with the digital signal. In this technique the renascence must be take place from analog to digital signals. Q6. While transferring the data from the transmission medium there are various aspects of your data getting temper by other users? Whats your opinion is the most take into custody and insecure transmission medium. Justify your answer with an example.Ans. Transmission media is the aspect which is caused for tempering of data by the other. All transmission media has this problem. When we use the copper wire it can be hydranted by another one. One of the improve version is the optical fibre which An improved media is fiber optic cabling, this media does not emanate any signals since it uses light sources to transmit the signals from node to node. It has proved to be the most secure media available for use on LANs today and depart continue to be the most secure media until the black hats discover a way to tap it undetected. The last medium reviewed is the wireless media which uses the airways as their path from node to node. The only way to guarantee secure transmissions is to use a layered approach, or combination of techniques to try to recruit the data. The best way currently to encrypt data over LANs is to use the IPSec protocol with any of the discussed media. IPSec security is matched with all types of media so it is the one thing in common with allmedia that will almost guarantee the security of the pathways between nodes.PART BQ1.Assume a stream is made of ten 0s .Encode this stream , using following encode schemes .How legion(predicate) can you find for each scheme ? Unipolar NRZ-L NRZ-I RZ Manchester differential gear ManchesterAns. 0000000000 Unipolar it can be cadaverous as NRZ-L It can be cadaverous as NRZ-I it can be drawn as RZ it can be drawn as Manchester it can be drawn as Differential Manchester it can be drawn as Q2. Two channels ,one with bit count of 150kbps and another with a bit roam of 140kbps,are to be multiplexed using pulse stuffing TDM with no synchronization bits.Answere the following What is the size of frame in bits What is the frame target ? What is the duration of a frame? What is the data rate?Ans.Given bit rate of 1st channel=150 kbpsGiven bit rate of 2nd channel=140kbpsAns1. We allocate 3 slot for first and 3 slot for 2nd and we each size of frame is six bit.Ans2.Q3. argumentation compare sampling rate received signal?Ans. In the conversion of the analog to digital, pulse code modulation is used. Sampling is the first exemplify of the PCM. The analog signal is sampled every Ts second. Where Ts is the sample interval or period. The opposition of sampling interval is called the sample rate or sampling frequency and denote fs where fs = 1/Ts. To produce the anolog signal one necessary physical body is that the sampling rate be at least twice the highest frequency in the original signal. This is according to the Nyquist theorem. e.g. Wo well-known examples where sampled sound is used are the telephone and audio compact discs. Pulse code modulation, as used within the telephone system, uses 8-bit samples made 8000 times per second. In North the States and Japan, 7 bits are for data and 1 is for control in atomic number 63 all 8 bits are for data. This system gives a data rate of 56,000 bps or 64,000 bps. With only 8000 samples/sec, frequencies above 4 kHz are lost.Received signal strength is a measure of the power present in a received radio signal. RSSI is generic radio pass catcher technology metric which is usually invisible to the user of device containing the receiver but is directly known to users of wireless networkingQ4. Synchronization is the problem in data communication. Explain?Ans. Synchronization technologies are designed to synchronize a single set of data between two or more devices, automatically copying changes back and forth. For example, a users contact list on one mobile device can be synchronized with other mobile devices or computers. Data synchronization can be topical anaesthetic synchronization where the device and computer are side-by-side and data is transferred or far synchronization when a user is mobile and the data is synchronized over a mobile network. In synchronous communications receiver, this specification discloses a decoder for generating a clock signal to synchronize the receiver with the tuition data rate of the received signal. The implementation of a decoder setup as a periodic finite state machine allows a clock signal to be extracted from the energy or transitions of the encoded signal. Such a decoder can define clock information over a large range of data rates. A band pass filter tuned to the characteristic frequency being received can be pair to the input of the decoder to limit the synchronization range to that desired by the receiver.Q5.Can bit rate be less than the pulse rate? why or why not?Ans. Yes it is possible. Pulse rate is be as the number of signals element send per second and the bit rate is defined as the number of data element which may be called bits in one second. Data communication needs to increase the data rate and decrease the pulse rate. So that the speed of transmission may be increased and decrease of bandwidth. But in some of the case it may be possible to the bit rate is less than pulse rate. This is do when the single pulse can carry more bits. When this happen the over-crowding Q6. A signal is sampled. Each sample represents one of four levels. How many bits are needed to represent each sample? If sampling rate is 8000 samples per second, what is the bit rateAns.Given Sampling rate = 8000We know that bit rate =1/Sample rate So bit rate =1/8000 =0.000125 bps

History of the US and Mexico Border

History of the US and Mexico perimeterTracing the Evolving Historiography of the U.S.-Mexico BorderIntroductionRegulating the edge surrounded by the United States and Mexico is non a new issue. In position, denotes over what to do with the spring, what it should look like, and who should be eachowed to hybridizing watch been prevalent questions since the Statesn and Mexican diplomats sat down to effect the environ in the aftermath of the Mexican-American war in 1848. While the easterly half of the peal is easily distinguished by the Rio Grande, the western throttle does non correspond to whatever recognizable geographic features and was instead do up of arbitrarily drawn stresss through an uninhabited desert. It is along this pervious modeling that a shorelands historian like Rachel St. asss monograph, follow in the anchor (2011), is concerned. While St. bathrooms deed decl atomic number 18s itself to be a tarradiddle of the true(a) perimeter, in the firs t place historians like Clarence Clendenen and his arrive at, melody on the Border The United States phalanx and the Mexican Irregulars (1969), is more(prenominal) of a troops record dealing the United States armys involvement in set up clashes with Indian and Mexican forces. In by and by years, stinting and public policy history became the preferred methodology of examining the history of the U.S.-Mexico coast like Douglas Masseys beyond Smoke and Mirrors Mexican Immigration in an Era of sparing consolidation (2002) which fancys the issue of managing immigration from Mexico through the Immigration Reform and correspond Act (IRCA) in an era of increasing sparing interdependence ca utilise by the North American set free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).When examined side by side, these three monographs are a good representation of just how drastic altogethery historians have changed the way they prove they palisade in only the become fifty years. Since its inception, th e ways in which historians discuss the U.S.-Mexico contact have evolved epoch-makingly. conflicting earlier admittancees, which were biased toward the United States and primarily concerned with the American denominate of view, newer ferments like St. Johns are beginning to consequence a more multi field approach to tracing the evolution of the bourn surrounded by the 2 nation-states from its inception as a meaningless farm animal on a map to the confused system of barriers and strict regularization that allows for the easy going of most concourse, animals, commodities, and goods, date restricting the go badments of other(a)s. Given the feud and politics that are deeply entrenched in discussions astir(predicate) the U.S.-Mexico border, St. Johns work is by no means the pinnacle of favored international history, however it does act as a step in the right directions for future historians to further expand upon.It is easy to assume that borderlandshistory would b e inherently transnational because often cartridge clips borderlands arecrossroads where volume and their institutions and traditions come together,creating distinctive ways of organizing lay and transforming the take careinglyfixed edges of empires and nations into bland spaces.1However that is non always the case, especially in the experience around(predicate) the U.S.-Mexicoborder, which is heavily politicized in both nations. The best transnationalhistories examine the interconnections among governmental units, especially theflow of goods, people, and ideas crosswise borders. These whole kit and boodle trace how USinvolvement overseas shapes not only foreign peoples, entirely analogously Americans approvehome. The most successful works incorporate a multifariousness of historical methods anddraw on US and foreign history while paying precaution to the role of non-stateactors and the agency of non-elites.2While all(prenominal) monograph discussed persist to onl y focus on a few of these qualifiers,there is a noticeable trend that scholarship is becoming more transnational,however possibly not as quickly as star would thing. The subject social occasion of borderlandhistory lends itself well to transnational methodology, however historians are salve more concerned with the elite actors, politics, and the American excite ofview for whatever of these works to be considered unfeignedly transnational. origin on the Borderpromulgated in 1969, Clendenens Blood on the Border The United States Armyand the Mexican Irregulars is one of the earliest examples of borderlandhistory and thus takes a more traditionalist approach to historical writing. Asa have of West Point and the Curator Emeritus of the Military Collection atStanford University, it is no surprise that Clendenens monograph is primarilyfocused on the strive history of border skirmishes that occurred between the U.S.and Mexican armies between 1848 and 1917. Clendenens work chronicles a series ofepisodes where the U.S. and Mexican armies clashed with each other beginningwith the activities of Juan Cortina who was a Robin Hood-like figure, ulteriorchapters as well as describes U.S. armed services activity during the Civil War, thecampaigns a earningsst the Kickapoos and Apaches, and border problems during the revolutionaryperiod. Clendenen then devotes over half of the book to examining popular PershingsPunitive Expedition against the Mexican revolutionary general Francisco PanchoVilla in 1916.Clendenens main argument is that thePunitive Expedition was not a mortify become flature for the US military, howeverthis period of U.S.-Mexico history has been greatly pretermit by historiansbecause it had been forgotten amidst the earlier wars with the Plains Indiansand World War I. He make outs General Pershings Punitive Expedition was soon soover-shadowed by the opening of the United States into World War I thathistorians have given it scrimp attention, and mo st of those who grant it a fewsentences, or a separate or two, are amazingly misinformed rough it. Yet theoperations of littler American forces in northern Mexico on numerous occasions produce a phase of our military history that is well worth rescuing.3To protrude his argument, Clendenen relieson a variety of sources including interviews, diaries and autobiographies ofAmerican soldiers, as well as U.S. archival sources. However Mexican sourcesare nearly nonexistent. He justifies that the exclusion of Mexican sources wasintentional because his goal is to describe the root on which Americancommanders formed their decisions. Clendenen argues that his searchdeliberately presents only the American perspective on the border conflictsbecause that is the nature of military history. A military history create verballyfrom the point of view of a participant nation is necessarily unilateral itcannot be shadely objective regarding the enemy the commander of a militaryunit must base hi s decisions upon the discipline he actually has at a givenmomentnot upon what a scholar or historian may know half a century later Hence,I make no apology for having cited very few Mexican sources.4Clendenen is also reluctant to embroil Mexican sources because, he argues, itis very baffling for an American to obtain firsthand information regarding correctts and activities. Mexicans, for some reason or other, he says, arereluctant to discuss border events with Americans.5This type of defense for foc utilise on the American narrative falls in linewith most of the early scholarship about the U.S.-Mexico border. Very little,if any, of Clendenens work can be considered transnational even though itssubject thing is about the US and Mexican armys movements throughout theborderlands. digression from examining the interconnections between political units(in this case, the militaries of two countries), Clendenen does little toexamine the flow of goods, people, and ideas crosswise borders , or focus on therole of non-state actors and the agency of non-elites. Little attention is alsopaid to tracing how the United States involvement overseas affects those back endhome.Beyond Smoke and MirrorsBy the early 2000s, scholarship on the U.S.-Mexico border was starting to become more willing to discuss the non-state, non-American actors, though it as yet tended to have a strong American perspective. Beyond Smoke and Mirrors Mexican Immigration in an Era of Economic Integration (2002) by Douglas Massey et al. examines the economic and public policy history of the U.S.-Mexico borderspecifically the opposing effect of the Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)to draw conclusions about the complexities of how the border operated between 1965 and 1986. Massey et al. argue that the migration system between Mexico and the United States is similar to a complicated bandage of machinery and that their monograph is meant to trou bleshoot the problems of immigration by describing the dramatic impact that immigration policies have had on those living in Mexico as well as the United States.The monograph operates as a appearance of possessors manual and describes how the migration system was built, how it workeduntil immigration policies first passed in 1986 disrupted it, and how thesystem changed as a consequence. later on in its repair manual, the authorsoffer a specific set of proposals intentional to fix the damage caused by thesepolicies and make migration efficient and predictable again. The authors argue, only if as it is not advisable to take a wrench to a precision clock if one is not a qualified clockmaker, it is not wise to pull policy levers if one has no real founding of how the underlying system functions. Yet this is exactly what happened beginning in 1986, when the US Congress and successive presidents presided over a series of legislative and bureaucratic changes that fundamentally changed the rules under which the Mexico-US migration system operatedwe seek to provide policymakers and citizens with a more accurate blueprint of the nuts and bolts of the Mexico-US migration system. We offer a kind of owners manual to explain how the system works theoretically, how it was built historically, and how it functions substantively, or at least how it did function until the 1986 IRCA threw it out of synch.6To support their arguments, Massey et al. utilize an economichistorymethodology by using a variety ofhistorical methods, statistical methods, andeconomictheorytoclosely examine the relationship between immigration and U.S. public policies. Similar to Clendenenswork, Massey et al. also do not look beyondthe American archives for source materials. However their sources do show agreater measurement of variety than Clendenens and even includes publish articlesfrom Mexican scholars, which is something Clendenen specifically avoided. The authorsgathered information from a diver s(prenominal) set of sources including officialstatistics from the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service and the U.S.Bureau of the Census, the Mexican National Statistical Institute, the WorldBank, the International Monetary Fund, and the United Nations.7 well-nigh notably, the authors rely on data compiled by the Mexican MigrationProject (MMP), a bi-national research project compiled by the University ofGuadalajara and the University of Pennsylvania and directed by two of theauthors, Jorge Durand and Douglas S. Massey.8Compared to Clarence Clendenens work, Beyond Smoke and Mirror shows a significant chemise in how historians study and write about the U.S.-Mexico border though the approach only hits on a few of the key qualifiers of a truly transnational work. For example, Clendenen was solely concerned with recording the experiences of Americans who served in the army in the borderlands and justifying the United States involvement in various border skirmishes. On the other h and, Massey et al. have expanded the scope of their research in order to examine the broader picture of the immigration of non-state, non-elite actors and the influence agricultural employers and American politics had on the ebb and flow of people across the border. Massey et al. also attempt to trade how the implementation of IRCA and NAFTA have interrupted the stable circular flow of Mexican migrants who arrived in the United States, quickly found jobs, and returned to Mexico for several months before migrating back to the United States again. This steady immigration system minimized the negative consequences and maximized the gain for both countries. 9 In this side, the authors attempted to explain how United States involvement in Mexico reshaped the lives of not only Mexicans, simply also Americans back home.Line in the SandOne of the most new-fashioned works of scholarship about the U.S.-Mexico border is Rachel St. Johns Line in the Sand A History of the Western U.S.-Mexico Border (2011). As part of Princeton Universitys America in the World series, this monograph is meant to represent the newest transnational methodology historians are using when writing about U.S-Mexico border history. St. John does employ a transnational methodology in her examination of the history of the U.S.-Mexico border, displaying a tremendous amount of change in the field, however the degree to which she utilizes key aspects of a authorized transnational work are jolly disappointing for a monograph published in a transnational history series. This appears to be a problem concerning the subject area rather than the author, as other historians such as Mae Ngai and her work, Impossible Subjects Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America (2004),appear to suffer similar shortcomings.Regardless, St. Johns work does createa very serviceable stepping stone to guide future historians away fromnationalistic, America-centered histories and towards studies not confined topolitic al units that are more concerned with the role of non-state actors assubjects of an incredibly complex system. St. John attempts to differentiateher work from earlier scholarship about the border by immediately assertingthat she is writing about the history of the fleshly border from itsconception up to its modern form in the 1930s. She argues that the actualborder itself is often ignored in scholarship that is supposedly about theborder As borderlands historians have emphasized historical processes thattranscend national boundaries and have expanded their focus to include zones ofinteraction outside of the US Southwest and Mexican north, they have oftentreated the border itself as in irrelevant or incidental part of theborderlands. By contrast, I emphasize the centrality of the leap line inthe processes of market expansion, conquest, state building, and personal identityformation with which many borderlands historians are concerned.10St. John examines the transformation of the b order chronologically from itsorigins in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848, to a prosperous economiccrossroads, and finally into a heavily policed series of checkpoints intent on property certain people and goods from crossing.St. John breaks her research up intochapters that can around be viewed as a series of vignettes or snapshotsthroughout time of how the western U.S.-Mexico border quickly began to change.From its inception as well as the actual attempts by surveyors to map out theborder, St. John argues that simply sketch a line on a map does not automatically guarantee territorial authority for a nation, especially one thatis not marked by any distinct geographical features like the western border.Essentially, she writes, the creation of the western border conjured up an entirely new space where there had notbeen one before.11 This is significantbecause for many years, the border remained a porous boundary that actuallyencouraged border residents to move freely. This i dea of a porous border wasespecially beneficial for mercantile emergence and bi-national cooperation,especially with the arrival of railroads in the 1880s. With the creation ofrailroads, St. John notes that a capitalist revolution had occurred, grasslandsbecame ranches, mountains became mines, and the border itself became a site ofcommerce and communities by the early twentieth century the border had becomea point of connection and community in the midst of an emerging capitalist delivery and the center of a transborder landscape of property and profit.12 However with thedevelopment of transnational capitalism came the creation of state border control,which was intent on protecting investors that profited from this economy by controlling the passage ofgoods and people across the border. By this time, military power was no longerthe primary concern along the border. Instead, the U.S. and Mexicossovereignty was measured in customs collected, immigrants rejected, andbandits arrested. 13 The latter(prenominal) half of St.Johns work examinesthe use of the border to dispense immigration. The ultimate challenge for bothcountries was the creation of a conditional border that allowed for the passageof desired migrants and commerce but obstructed the flow of those who were notwelcome.14This conditional border was incredibly inconsistent and depended largely on the discretion of immigration officials, changes in law, and fluctuating economicconditions.15St. John attempts to address each of the key aspects of a transnational methodology with varying degrees of success. Most frank is her examination of the interconnections between political units and the flow of goods, people, and ideas across borders because this is the entire basis of her research. Unlike Clendenen and Massey who only focused on the one-way flow of people and goods from Mexico to the United States, St. John actually expands on this idea in her work by examining the flow of people from Mexico to the Un ited States and then back to Mexico at different points in time in the early twentieth century. She spends a considerable amount of time discussing the effects that immigration policy changes had on immigrant laborers, their families, and their communitiesaspects of immigration that the earlier historians had all but ignored.Similar to St. John, Massey et al.also discuss the idea that the economy in the United States played asignificant hand in influencing the ebb and flow of Mexican immigration,however they fail at investigating what happened to these people once theyemigrated back to Mexico. St. John discusses the fluctuations of immigration,but she also attempts to tell the other side of the story by including theMexican governments response to deportations and increasingly strictimmigration laws.16 In thisway, St. John does a much better job than earlier historians at tracing howU.S. involvement and policies shaped not only Mexican citizens, but Americansas well. This becomes in creasingly apparent as she examines the sharp increasesin policing of the border in the 1930s as government officials not only doit more difficult for new migrants to cross the border but also criminalizedMexicans as illegal aliens and encouraged, coerced, and forced hundreds ofthousands of Mexican nationals and US citizens of Mexican gloam to move toMexico.17Changes in U.S. policy in attempts to protect its economy and citizens distinctlyaffected deported Mexican citizens and people of Mexican descent, but it also cater into the growing anti-Mexican sentiment that many Americans were feeling atthe time, essentially treating Mexican laborers as scapegoats for the lack ofjobs leading up to the Great Depression. One aspect of St. Johns work thatcould use improvement is diversifying the sources that she uses. Again, thisappears to be a problem inherent in this subject area rather than any fault ofthe author. While Clendenen intentionally used only American sources, laterhistorians of U.S.-Mexico relations like Massey et al. and even Mae Ngai appearto have trouble including a fair amount of sources from foreign archives. Thiscould be for a variety of reasons including talking to barriers, lack of accessto the archives, or simply because perchance the majority of scholarship on thissubject could be published in the United States. St. John seems to have beenmore successful at including Mexican scholarship in her work compared toearlier scholars, however for a monograph specifically about the border betweenMexico and the United States, her sources are static notably one-sided. Out ofall of her research, St. John only visited three archives in Mexico to completeher work. These include the Archivo General del Estado de Sonora, the ArchivoHistricoGenaro Estrada, and the Instituto de Investigaciones Histricas.18 In comparison to thenumerous American archives she visited, it is hard to understand why she choseto include so few Mexican sources when a significant por tion of her work isdedicated to the communities located on the Mexican side of the border. Thevast majority of St. Johns research was conducted within the United States andshe uses a variety of American archives to complete her work using a largeassortment of books, photographs, manuscript collections, film reels,government documents, and newspapers. St. Johns use of source materials iscomparable to Massey et al. who used similar documents to complete their work onlya decade earlier. The fact that scholars have yet to utilize Mexican sources totheir greatest potential is somewhat disappointing for a work of transnationalhistory but perhaps the next generation of historians will be able to improvethe concomitant if the controversy and politics that are deeply entrenched in discussionsabout the U.S.-Mexico border ever simmer down. Rachel St. Johns Line in the Sand is the latest attemptby borderlands historians taking a transnational approach to their work. It maynot be successful in all aspects of a truly transnational methodology howeverit does set the comprise for future historians to build off of and think outsideof the borders of traditional U.S.-centric histories. inferenceConcerns over regulating theU.S.-Mexico border, what it should look like, and who should be allowed tocross it are issues as relevant today as they were when the border was firstestablished one hundred seventy years ago. Tune into any news network today and information onthe latest immigration policies and border control will for certain be hotly debatedbetween policymakers, citizens, and corporations who all have differingopinions on how the border should operate. While obvious geographical featureslike the Rio Grande easily delineate the eastern portion of the U.S.-Mexicoborder, the western border cuts through uninhabitable desert that is butmarked with more than a few fence posts in some areas. It is along thispermeable half of the border that borderlands historians situate their work.Borderland histories have transformedsignificantly over the course of the century as historians are beginning toleave behindhand the nationalistic, pro-American sentiments of historical writingbehind in favor of a better-rounded transnational approach that situatesAmerica in the context of the greater history of the world. Published in 1969, ClarenceClendenens Blood on the Border TheUnited States Army and the Mexican Irregulars represents the ways in whichearlier historians often used military history when discussing border issues. Inlater years, economic and public policy history became the preferredmethodology of examining the history of the U.S.-Mexico border like DouglasMasseys Beyond Smoke and MirrorsMexican Immigration in an Era of Economic Integration (2002). In recentyears, historians like Rachel St. John are attempting to examine the history ofthe actual border itself without tying themselves down to writing specificallyfrom the perspective of any one nation state. W hen examined chronologically,these monographs show just how drastically historians have changed the way theydiscuss they border in just the last fifty years. Unlike the earlier approachesto writing about the border, which were primarily concerned with the Americanpoint of view, newer works like St. Johns are beginning to take a moretransnational approach to tracing the evolution of the boundary between Mexicoand the United States from its inception as an unclear and undefined politicalboundary to the complex system of border patrols and strict regulation thatallows for the easy passage of some people, animals, commodities, and goods,while at the same time restricting the movements of others.In many other fields of study, thetransnational approach to history was specifically sparked by changes in how weexamine and write about history in a post-9/11 world. However, discussions overthe U.S.-Mexico border do not seem to follow this trend quite as closely as itis still a subject the gene ral public is hotly divided over. This could beattributed to many reasons such as current events involving recently electedU.S. leaders fear mongering that it is imperative for the safety of Americancitizens and the economy to build a two thousand mile long wall along theborder. This feeds into a deep-seated distrust of the immigration system afterusing Mexican immigrants as a convenient scapegoat for the better half of acentury. As long as U.S. citizens, our government, and policies continue tovilify our neighbors to the south, any sort of progressive transnationalscholarship will not be possible.BibliographyClendenen,Clarence C., Blood on the Border TheUnited States Army and the Mexican Irregulars.London The MacmillanCompany, 1969.Hamalainen,Pekka and benjamin Johnson. What is Borderlands History? In studyProblems inthe History of North American Borderlands, 1-40.WandsworthPublishing, 2011.Accessed May 1, 2017. http//inside.sfuhs.org/dept/history/Mexicoreader/Chapter8/borderland s/borderlandsch1.pdf.Massey,Douglas S., Jorge Durand, and Nolan J. Malone. Beyond Smoke and Mirrors Mexican Immigrationin an Era of Economic Integration. New York Russell Sage Foundation, 2002.St. John, Rachel. Line in the Sand A history of the Western U.S.-Mexico Border. Princeton Princeton University Press, 2011.1 PekkaHamalainen and Benjamin Johnson, What is Borderlands History?, in MajorProblems in the History of North American Borderlands (Wandsworth Publishing, 2011), 1.2 Class notes.3 ClarenceC. Clendenen, Blood on the Border TheUnited States Army and the Mexican Irregulars (London The MacmillanCompany, 1969). Xvi.4 Ibid., xvii5 Ibid.6 DouglasS. Massey et al., Beyond Smoke andMirrors Mexican Immigration in an Era of Economic Integration (New YorkRussell Sage Foundation, 2002). 2.7 Ibid., 165.8 Ibid.9 Ibid., 71.10 RachelSt. John, Line in the Sand A history ofthe Western U.S.-Mexico Border (Princeton Princeton University Press,2011). 5-6.11 Ibid., 2.12 Ibid., 64.13 Ibid., 90.14 Ibid., 175.15 Ibid.16 Ibid., 188.17 Ibid.18 Ibid., 249.

French revolution

french transformationTo what extremity were the approximations of the french philosophes and enlighten custodyt sentiment a precondition to the French transition in 1789 were the tender and stinting c locomotes of the time not sufficient in causing the transmutation themselves?The extent to which the philosophy of the 18th cytosine imp consummationed the French transmutation has busy the historian ever since the days of the revolution itself. It has proved to be immensely complex publicy historians nourish written on the subject of the Revolution objet darty choosing to c on the whole(prenominal) it purely as a sequence of events culminating in Revolution. The intellectual origins of the Revolution take root initially in the ideas of 16th Century writers. The eonian development of these ideas direct into the great period of the 18th Century, where philosophers sought to develop innovative ways of sentiment that would allow man to better himself, and to fre e him from old ways of idea and superstitions that had engrained themselves in the populace. The generations that had giving up in the intellectual environs of the time and the way they were touch on by these subversive ideas was an essential tallyt of the Revolution. Trained historians have tended to extend down the role of played by the philosophes instead they focus on the historical causes of the Revolution, on the incidents such as the financial crisis or the inefficacy of the tax system. However, it is fundamental in understanding the cause of the innovation to apprize the undercurrent of the development of new ideas over time this graduated detail does not necessarily warrant as more attention as events that happen abruptly, which may have caused the influence of enlightenment thinking to be cast aside somewhat. So how can the extent to which the ideas and writings of the philosophes influenced the habitual population be meatireed? To what extent were the re volutionaries influenced by the philosophes and mayhap approximately importantly did the revolutionaries mould their own philosophies around the circumstances in which they institute themselves?The idea of volont earthale was a fundamental concept that call for to be considered by many judgment thinkers. What was meant by volont raise of matterale? It could be interpreted as volont de la studyit, but how could the testament of the masses be gauged? The will of the people inevitable to manifest itself in some form in order for a people to be settle revolutionary. To understand how the heaven affected the e sincerelyday single(a) in France is to fully appreciate the indecision at hand il faudra chercher a connatre ltat stilbesterolpirit stilboestrol hommes lpoque, nous rendre compte de ce quprouvait alors lindividu par rapport la masse dont il fasait government agencyie.1The Philosophes and profundity thinking in the 18th CenturyVoltaire was adept of the key fig ures in basis of his revolutionary thinking during the Eighteenth Century. He believed that laws were outdated and needed to be assortmentd because they had been spend a pennyd at a different time, haphazardly and the make iting laws were bases sur lignorance et la superstition.2 In a allowter he wrote to Catherine II Voltaire stated les lois sont faites aprs coup, comme on calfate diethylstilbestrol vaisseux qui ont voies deau elles sont innombrables, parce quelles sont faites sur des besoins toujours renaissants elles sont condradictoires, attendu que ces besoins ont toujours chang. Voltaire was convinced that laws needed to be changed in order to allow the society to start out learned person. For Voltaire religious belief too holds man back from becoming enlightened. In price of lessons, he comp ares the religious morals with philosophical morals. Voltaires belief that the philosophical morality is no different from religious morality is get inly explained by Groethu ysen Les philosophes ont tous des ides diffrentes sur les principes des choses, mais ils enseignent drift la mme parole.3 whole religions thitherof have a harmonising and moralising aspect, however Voltaire criticises the way in which religion is base upon so many superstitions and obscure cult practices. These outdated superstitions have led to war and destruction les gens se sont broils sur les dogmes, ils sont fait la guerre des nations en ont detruit dautres parce queelles croyaient en Jesus-Christ et non en Mahoment.4 Laws and religion are not needful in order to allow man to know the difference amongst right and wrong contend out is independent of law and religion. Man has been demoralize by the irrational aspects of religion. He does not use his sense of reason to understand the world and commits act of destruction and violence solely in the name of religion. Voltaire cute man to be freed from its inability to reason, much as well Kants belief in Was ist Aufklar ung that Aufklrung ist der Ausweg des Menschen aus seiner selbstverschuldeten Unmndigkeit. Sapere aude In answering the question as to how a law of reason can be formal Voltaire proposes une loi fondamentale qui agit sur toutes les nations que nous conaissons.5 The principle behind this law is first and maiden to distinguish between what is right and what is not. But Voltaire get holds this law as alternate in terms of human judgement and reason any man has an inner instinct that allows them to know what is right, un sens de lequite commun a tous les hommes. For Voltaire ideas of morality are of the ut well-nigh importantce knowledge of all some other ideas essential come flash to morality seules les idees morales peuvent nous server a conduire notre vie de facon a la mener en commun avec les autres hommes. A new philosophy of morality was necessary to create the new modern man this was Voltaires main intentionive he wrote in a letter to Frederic Guillaume in October 1737 that lhumanite est le principe de toutes mes pensees. Man has to look just now to the goodness deep down him and his own instinctive moral principles rain cats and dogs que sa raison trouve en lui une egalite universelle dominant toutes les legislations particulieres. This in turn would lay down the foundations for a moral law.As Voltaire grew older he increasingly focused his thoughts against religion and the Church. In a letter written to Frederic II in 1767 he state depuis dix-sept cents ans, la secte chretienne na jamais fait que du mal. He called on all philosophers of his time to rise up with him in his fight against the Church. Voltaire declare that so whizzr or subsequent the time would come in France when people would be able to see the conspiracy and lunacy of religion people were raising des mains invisibles pour percer le fanatisme dun bout de lEurope a lature avec les fleches de la verite. He became very excited about the prospect of the coming revolution by mea ns of the Enlightenment and could foresee the coming of the age of reason. In 1761 he wrote to dAlembert, je suis tetu. Jusqua mon dernier souffle, je repeterai mon caeterum censo Ecrasez lInfame. Cest une grande lutte, la lutte de tous les etres pensants contre les etres non-pensantstous les etres pensants doivent etre tendrement uniscontre les fanatiques, les hypocrites, egalement persecuteurs. However, Voltaire was particularly critical of other philosophers of his time, toutes les philosophes sont trop tiedes ils se contentent de rire des erreurs des hommes, au emplacement de les ecraser.6 Voltaire wanted all the philosophes to join together to cause change in the world and to help the population become enlightenened, he did not wanted the other philosophes to want to enlighten the world and not just see the mistakes in the existing 1 les missionaries courent la terre et les mers, il faut au moins que les philosophes courent les rues, il faut quils aillent semer le bon grain de maisons en maisons.7 This use of particularly strong spoken language by Voltaire shows the extent to which he believed in the Enlightenment and how much he wanted it to be earn in the world. Voltaire, in writing to Alembert vehemently calls those leaders who prevent their citizens from becoming enlightened as monstres persecuteurs, quon me donne seulement sept ou huit personnes que je puisse conduire et je vous exterminerai.8 He declared that eventually reason will master but bemoans the circumstance that he will not be alive to see this boyfriend changement of lEglise de la sagesse, dans laquelle les philosophes seront les precepteurs du genre humain. He calls on the philosophes to see the fruit of the trees that they themselves had planted.As regards the division of France into three estates Voltaire is very discipline that the existing system require to be abolished. Representez vous le tier etat. Mais ce sont les paysans sur leur champsles millions dhommes qui travaille nt, a cote des deux cent mille members du clerge ou de la noblesse qui ne travaillent pas.9 This inequality is a major fuss for Voltaire for, in his eyes, all men are born evenly on the Earth and this inequality from birth poses a major problem in allowing the Third Estate to become enlightened. Le tiers etat a lui seul est dj toute la nation10 Voltaire calls on the revolutionary masses of 1789 to look deeper and to a greater extent closely at things and to question eachthing around them. Fiez-vous donc a votre raisonnement, substituez toujours le concret, le defini aux affirmations indecises ou populares. He explains how not every man is born with the ability to be a philosophe but that every man is able to become enlightened la faculte critique est quelque chose de positif en lhomme. Cest la joie detre libre de prejudges, de savoir que la raison est souverain en tout homme.11 Voltaire wants every man to win the fight against superstition and false beliefs. Voltaire praises the other philosophes, for despite their differences, they are honnetes gensqui ne savent aspire ce qui est, mais qui savent fort bien ce qui nest pas.12 They have called the world into question and although they do not have answers to much of it they have created the foundations upon which the Enlightenment can be built. Although Voltaires philosophy may be interpreted as somewhat pessimistic in terms of the insignificance of man in terms of the universe, he is also optimistic in that man does have the capacity to think about things outside his world there is la misere de la condition humaine but also les grandes pensees, le ciel etoile dans sa legalite invariable, leternite dont lhomem essaye de surprendre le secret pendant le court instant dure sa pauvre conception instable.13 The philosophes need to join together and give their mutual support to one another in order to win the fight against the enemy that seeks to retain its domination over unenlightened man. But by what means could Voltaires impulse of an enlightened nation be carry outd? In a letter to the marquis dArgence de Dirac in 1764 he declares il ne faut pas disputer avec les gens entetesjamais la dispute na convaincu personne on peut ramener les hommes en les faisant penser par eux memes, en paraisant douter avec eux, en les conduisant, comme par la main, sans quiils sen apercoivent. For Voltaire if all the philosophes were united in their philosophies and it cogitationed its way peacefully by dint of the masses then la plus belle poque de lhistoire de lespirit humain would be born.From the advent of Christianity Voltaire believes that annals has only been formed through errors and mistakes. In opposition to Montesquieu, he proposes all existing laws to be forgotten so that humanity can be re-rooted in reason and enlightened thinking. For Voltaire there is nothing to be learnt from invoice la critique historique decouvre partout la deraison dont temoignent les actes et les lois faites p ar les hommes, depuis que lEglise a fat regner la superstition dans le monde.14 Man needs to be enlightened from this farcical world, created by generations of mans mistakes. Although on the face of it Voltaires analysis of the current situation could be interpreted as pessimistic he trusts that reason will prevail in allowing a new order to be created, as Groethuysen explains la raison conduira la passionla passion devenue raison, la passion de la raison va posseder les hommes de la revolution francaise.15Montesquieu and Jean-Jacques Rousseau were also arguably among some of the most important Enlightenment thinkers impart to the French Revolution. In terms of laws Montesquieu believed that all men should conform to laws and that they must(prenominal) begin by working to create worthy people.16 Justice, for Montesquieu was a harmonized relationship which really exists between two things. This relationship never varies whether it is viewed from the sight of God, an angel, or of maneven if God did exist, we ought always to love justicejustice is eternal and nowise pendent on human conventions.17 Justice was an absolute standard and laws must exist because they are just. Montesquieu proverb man as a product of his environment and felt that man should adapt himself as best he could within this environment. Unlike Voltaire, Montesquieu did not see the need to rid the world of all its existing laws instead he declares it is sometimes necessary to change authentic laws, but such occasions are rare and when they arise one should only touch laws with a trembling hand.18 This approach to the tampering with laws is not particularly revolutionary however, he wanted all governmental societies to be judged on his absolute principles of justice and liberty. For Montesquieu the idea form of government took specify in a moderate government, however, he states that moderate governments are a masterpiece of legislation that chance produces very rarely and men rarely allow prudence to create19In de lEsprit des Lois, published in 1748 Montesquieu discusses the impartiality of laws and how to judge whether a law exists for the good of man. He believes that laws should be make in order to better mankind and to transform the existing system. All laws need to be judged as to whether they correspond or contradict the rights of man. For Montesquieu every law needs to be based on moral principles and should doorkeeper man towards morality. Cest dans les principes du droit que noud devons chercher la norme absolue qui nous permettra de construire une collectivite.20 Montesquieu saw the intellectual world as a conference of collectivites. The life of every individual is fundamentally teach by the confederacy in which they live. A world of collectivites would create a new, happy people and man would achieve happiness in such a collectivite. It could be interpreted that Montesquieu sees France as a collectivite. Cest la nation qui seule peut se donner la loi.21 Montesquieu wanted to see a change in the law-citizen relationship he wanted it to change from man being the object of laws to man becoming the subject of legislative berth. Montesquieu wanted human reason to be applied to the reality in which people lived. However, Montesquieus philosophy does not sit well with the French Revolution because his i dish ups of universal and absolute reason are only applicable to the world at large and which must govern the world at large. As a result, if these laws were to be implemented, one would only be implementing ideas based upon legality within nature. Montesquieu believed that the legislative and administrator powers needed to be separate so that the citizens could not be crush and would remain free. For Montesquieu the main purpose of religion was to make better citizens he believed that religious beliefs were a product of the environments in which people lived. Despite the fact that he believed that all religions strengthened t he morality of the followers Montesquieu believed Christianity to be the most favorable in creating good citizens. Montesquieus de lEsprit des Lois put forward the pattern of liberalism in which liberty could only be secured through a create mentally equilibrium between the competing interests within society22 Although Montesquieus message is not always clear within de lEsprit des Lois he does not waver from his belief that governments should act in the needs of the people, as opposed to being the means to change a society, that institutions and beliefs are the result of the environment and the actions of generations in the past and that there are moral imperatives that transcend time and which bind all men together.Fundamentally Montesquieu and Rousseau had conflicting concepts of freedom. As previously stated Montesquieu believed that freedom could be achieved in collectivites. Governments needed to follow the independence of these collectivites and vote in favour of the espri t general. On the other hand, Rousseaus notion of political freedom consisted of allowing man to achieve all he wanted, which was obviously in the best interest of the community at large. This would be achieved through the liberation of man from his state of ignorance by abolishing all existing institutions and denaturing man. One legislator would ensure this denaturing and change his existence through changing the society in which he lived. Despite Montesquieus belief that governments should let people pursue their own interests, he wanted the governments to pursue two freedom and justice it would be wrong to say to say that Montesquieu was not urging political action. Rousseau was urging for a regeneration of the current system, and as Hampson explains this concept of regeneration was to become one of the most abused lyric of 1789.23 Both Rousseau and Montesquieu had devoted a great deal of their time to political issues and had begun to repugn the existing political situation , however more writers needed to dispute the existing order but the influence of these philosophes in allowing revolutionary thinking and ideas to come into being cannot be understated. Montesquieu and Rousseaus impact in the years lead up to the Revolution took shape in numerous forms. There was constant reference to Montesquieu in the many pamphlets of literature of 1788 in support of the parlements challenge to the royal family. Lawyers were constantly referencing Montesquieu and De lesprit des lois. Furthermore, Rousseaus influence was also present with references to du Contrat social the state of monarchy is only useful for corrupted nations.24 Other pamphlets draw on Rousseau to an even greater extent man is born free, laws are acts of the general will, government is the agent of the general will and not a part to the social contract.25 As Hampson further explains all the pamphlets shared a harsh vocabularythe subjects of the kingdom had been replaced by the citizens of the nation. Those of whom the writers approved were the enfants de la patrie and their opponents agents of ministerial despotism26 This is a clear demonstration of the influence of Rousseaus philosophy and his success in shaping revolutionary ideas through the use of this republican language. Billaud Varenne, was particularly influenced by the ideas of Rousseau and expressed his discernment for the fine works of Rousseau, who describes so well the power of the Supreme Being27 In Varennes Despotisme des ministres de France Varenne echoes many of Rousseaus sentiments superior by our knowledge, our industry and our force, to every nation in the universe, when we could be second Romans, betrayed by our generals, strangled by our ministers, every day we risk being subjugated to foreign domination or becoming wholly enslaved to our own28 Moreover, Montesquieus philosophy was also put forward by Varenne in this three-volume work great agitation within a state should always be avoided as much as possible.29 It is clear that the work of the philosophes had a major impact on the revolutionaries and fundamentally provided the intellectual foreplay upon which the revolutionaries could propose concrete changes contributing to the revolution of 1789.The expression of the philosophes ideals in the French RevolutionMany modern day historians continue to argue that the tie beam between Enlightenment thought and the French Revolution long pre-dated the revolution itself, claiming that many anti-philosophes were convinced that the philosophes were attempting to undermine and destabilise the already established order. Nonetheless, the revolutionaries claimed that the Revolution was a direct consequence of Enlightenment thinking as Brissot boasted in 1791 Our revolution is not the fruit of an insurrection. It is the work of a half century of enlightenment. As Roland N. Stromberg explains Those who tried to guide the Revolution never ceased to legitimize or rationalize their actions by appealing to the words of Voltaire, Rousseau ,Montesquieu, Diderot, and other intellectual heroes of the Enlightenment, though they might do so selectively and erratically30Most damming in comprehend the Revolution as the result of the Enlightenment is the fact that the majority of the stay philosophes of the time did not agree with the Revolution. From the Holbach coterie, which included Raynal, Marmontel, Morellet and Grimm. With the onset of revolution, Raynal, who had written perhaps the most influential revolutionary piece of the 1770s, fled Paris. Morellet also declared that the French Revolution had created a state of anarchy and also left Paris. Further, Marmontel saw a dangerous fanaticism and the spirit of licence, crew and anarchy. Grimm, who had served a depositary of sorts to the philosophe movement also fled the country and returned to his native Germany and left his riches to be seized by the revolutionary government. Alan Kors had named this group as the radic al enlightenment group and argues that their opposition to the Revolution held true to their own Enlightenment views. The fact that the French Revolution had taken such an irrational and anarchic course went against their beliefs in rational order and scientific method.31 The philosophes favoured a far more gradual progression of the Revolution through reform and allowing the leaders and the population of France to come to understand the ideas of the Enlightenment. The Marquis de Condorcet, whose pure philosophy contributed a great deal to the Revolution still, on the Eve of the Revolution, believed that France could only solve its social and stinting crises through the slow diffusion of Enlightenment ideas. His friend The Abbe Sieyes in the Societe de 1789, who fundamentally symbolised the Revolution of the Third Estate in 1789, also withdrew from government in 1790 due to his disapproval of the path the Revolution had taken. Of the philosophes still alive in 1789 the Cercle Socia l still made attempts to allow the ideas of the past be realised in modern day France. The Cercle Social was later to become the Girondist faction of the Revolution. The group had its own printing press, published journals and placed major idiom on education of the ideas of the philosophes. Condorcet and Brissot were key members of this group and were determined to make Enlightenment ideals become part of the new emerging world. They wanted to spread the ideas of the Enlightenment and create a rational political institutions based on the ideas of the Enlightenment.32 They believed that a sudden and aggressive move from one form of government to the succeeding(prenominal) was not the way Revolution should be carried out, rather ideas needed to be understood by the everyday man so that his attitudes could be changed. The point that changes needed to take place on all levels of society is aptly explained by Foucault nothing in society will be changed if the mechanisms of power that f unction outside, below and alongside the State apparatuses on a much more minute and everyday level are not also changed.33It was believed by these revolutionaries that France would become a nation devoted to the Revolution, in which Rousseau du Contrat Socials well-behaved religion would become the new moral cement. Many of the revolutionaries began to see themselves as the priests of this new religion. These Girondists also believed that education could change human nature an idea derived from John Locke and put forward by Condillac in France. The Girondists were adamant that this could be achieved if the philosophes and revolutionaries were able to gain control of education they could mold a new species of mankind.34 The Jacobins were even more extreme in their views on education as they wanted to take children away from their parents and indoctrinate them in new Enlightenment ideas. As Stromberg explains the philosophes had addressed only an elite, the next task was to expand this appeal circle to embrace the whole nation. However, Gary Kates argues that the Girondists were not a bourgeois company but a party of those who had come to understand the Enlightenment. Despite their will to see the ideas of the philosophes realised within the Revolution they proved to be unproductive politicians and thus were defeated by the Montagnards.Robespierrists felt that their enemies were far more educated than they were and attempted to confuse the masses with their complicated ideas of philosophy. Saint-Just declared that these enemies tried to arse around people with complicated intellectual arguments. Robespierre himself was not an advocate of theory and declared it is not necessary to search in the books of political writers, who did not at all foresee the Revolution. Many historians have also questioned the extent to which Robespierre really was influenced by the philosophes given his suspiciousness of their ideas and many argue that he did not even have a v ery great knowledge of Rousseau, of whom he declared himself to have been greatly influenced. Brissot once called Robespierres speeches unintelligibility posing as profundity. The down with the philosophes slogan of the Jacobins is further evidence in proving the lack of respect that they had for the Enlightenment ideas of the 18th century. At this point it is clear that the ideas of the philosophes were no overnight attached to the Revolution the Jacobins were far more interested in politics than with the ideas of the Enlightenment and thus the Revolution broke away from the Enlightenment.35 The Bourgeoisie and the RevolutionThe middle class and the educated classes played a major role in the French Revolution through the summoning of the Assembly. Between November 1788 and the meeting of the Estates commonplace over 2,500 pamphlets were published. The ideas of the philosophes which were now being forwarded through the revolutionaries became of great interest to the middle class . The bourgeoisie began to focus on how the current system could be changed and how their desires might become a reality. The system of government had been attacked and criticised for decades prior to the Revolution the introduction of new ideas change to the existing constitutional and political situation had enlightened the bourgeoisie and fuelled their desire for change.21 BernardGroethuysen, Philosophie de la Rvolution Franaise, scalawag 82 2 Ibid, Page 1333 Ibid, Page 1354 Ibid5 Ibid, page 1366 Lettre de Voltaire a dAlembert, 26-XII en 17677 Lettre de Voltaire a dAlembert, 26-VI en 17668 Lettre de Voltaire a dAlembert, 26-VIII en 17669 Page 155, Groethuysen10 Ibid11 12 Letter page 15813 Page 16114 Philosophie de la Revolution Francaise, page 16615 Ibid, page 16716 Cahiers, I/393 Grasset, page 11917 Lettres Persanes, LXXXIII18 Ibid CXXIX19 De lespirit des lois, V/1420 Philosophie de la Revolution Francaise, page 12821 Philosophie de la Revolution Francaise, page 13022 voliti on and Circumstance, Norman Hampton, Page 2423 Will and Circumstance, Norman Hampton, Page 5824 Will and Circumstance, Norman Hampton, Page 6025 Ibid, page 6126 Ibid27 Le dernier coup porte aux prejuges et a la superstition, London, 1789, page 34828 Despotisme des ministres de France, Amsterdam, 1789, 3rd Volume, Page 20929 Ibid, Page 24330 The Philosophes and the French Revolution, Some Reflections on recent research, Roland N. Stromberg, Page 323

Christian Ethics And Secular Ethical Systems Theology Religion Essay

Christian Ethics And Secular honourable Systems Theology Religion EssayIn this essay, I forget itemise the differences between Christian and unconsecrated morals. The role of theology on h unmatchedst decision making allow be indicated, along with secular and several(prenominal)(a) spiritual break throughdoor stages on ethical discourses on terminateion and split. Miscellaneous Christian adopts which include those of the Liberals, the Evangelicals and the Neo-orthodox leave behind also be examined.Further more than, I will research the implications of the afore custodytioned ethical skips on religious discourse involving Buddhism and the Abrahamic opinions.DIFFERENCE amid CHRISTIAN AND SECULAR ETHICSEthics is a word that derivationated from the classic words ethikos and ethos which respectively implies custom and character.1However, Collins dictionary defines ethics as a social, religious, or civil code of behaviour considered correct, especially that of a dis continueicular group, profession, or individual.2I found a clear-cut commentary of Christian ethics by Dr Harkness (a professor of applied theology) as the doctrinal study of the way of sustenance set forth by deliverer Christ applied to the daily demands and decisions of human existence.3It is the Christians code of conduct derived from the scriptures. piece of music Christian ethics aim is to determine what conforms to Gods character and what does not it is more of a practical entity in comparison with theory oriented Christian theology.4Conversely, James Bernat in his book, Ethical issues in neurology defines secular ethics as the invention of human rational dialogue that assumes that man broad do-nothing create a comprehensive and world-wide structure of object lessonity that is void of religious framework.5The main approaches to secular ethics ar predicated on reason, experience or object lesson sense.6Additionally, secular ethics consists of various shapes as utilitar ianism, egoism or hedonism, emotivism and cultural relativism.7These models form the framework for close to ethical postulations. I will now examine the contrasts between Christian and secular ethics.A inconsistency between Christian and secular ethics is that the latter serves as a basis for arriving at moral judgments as it appraises existing customs, while supporting the enactment of righteousnesss and policies. Secular ethics be work as a yardstick to evaluate religious doctrines by application of a hardened set of moral principles.8Christian ethics are founded on pious revealings.BASES FOR CHRISTIAN ETHICAL DECISIONSEvangelical Christians base moral ethical decisions on Gods revelation which is from nature itself (the general) or from the scriptures (the special). An example derived from the scriptures is the Ten Commandments in hejira 21-23. biblical scholars emphasize that the natural law derived from nature itself is inherent in mankind and it is responsible for do ing things right with step up Biblical guidelines. This is referred to in the book of Romans 214-15, where Apostle capital of Minnesota mentioned the clarity of the human conscience in the decision making mechanism.Similarly, Jesus Christ affirms the same principle when he said men should do unto others what they will have done to themselves, (Matt 712). This particular view is upheld by renowned philosophers such as Immanuel Kant and Clive Lewis in their writings.9The application of moral decisions on ethical issues is subject to debate as will be indicated in subsequent paragraphs.SOME ETHICAL ISSUESThis range from stillbirth, divorce, homo fetch upuality, same sex hymeneals, war, money, marriage, sexuality, death, forgiveness, euthanasia, business etc.I will be focusing on the ethical theme of stillbirth and divorce indoors the secular, Christian and inter assurance discourse.SECULAR VIEWS ON miscarriageAbortion is any artificial meaning to induce the loss of a gestation. A n average pregnancy is for forty weeks or nine months. Pregnancy terminated due to natural causes during the first xx weeks is called a miscarriage, while further than twenty weeks are pre-term delivery.10Nonetheless, abortion involves the moral choice of the mother, as well as the ethical right of the minor to live. Abortion might be inevitable in rape, poverty, deformity of scotch etc. Abortion supporters see it as a retroactive protective while those against it see it as a little less than antepartum infanticide.11It has been established that moral justification of abortion is common in the secular world.Under the United Kingdom law (Abortions act 1967) abortion is endorsed within the first 24 weeks of pregnancy as long as received conditions are fulfilled. It must be in an approved institution, the mother and childs wellness are considered, and decisions to be made with the consensus of two medical checkup doctors.12CHRISTIANS ON ABORTIONThe Liberals are broadminded on abo rtion, as long as it is done de jure and safely.13The char has full rights over her own body when it involves the decision to abort or not.14The Liberals do not deliberate over ethical issues concerning the unborn baby, in contrast to evangelicals position.Evangelical Christians are on strict stand against abortion with scriptural arguments used to portray (babys) life in graduate(prenominal) esteem. They also support of all social aspects regarding pregnancy care and sufferance issues.15The position of the Neo-orthodox Christians will be examined next.The Neo-Orthodoxy originated from Ger many an(prenominal) after the First World contend when Karl Barth (a protestant theologian) advanced the theology of crisis. It was an era when multitude were disappointed from intimately beliefs.16Neo-Orthodoxy assumes that the scripture can be a faulty human invention, although Gods revelation is continuously present under personal experience.17Nevertheless, abortion is not allowed pull out if carried out to protect the pregnant woman.The Christian ethics of divorce will be examined next.CHRISTIAN ETHICS ON break upJesus response to the permission given by Moses for the issuance of the bill of divorce to women was followed by the injunction that divorce is a direct covenant-breaking departure from Gods master send off for marriage, (Matt 196 Rom 72). Jesus also denounces divorce in the dialogue with his disciples in Mark 10 1-11, while arguments resulting from the exception clause (i.e. Condition for divorce) is interpreted by some(a) scholars in the scope to mean fornication established against the wife during the betrothal phase of marriage according to Jewish tradition. Unfortunately, the biblical divorce law interpretation is diverse. several(prenominal) scholars argue that the exemption clause means adultery which is a supplement to institute divorce.However, a suitable rejoinder is the reaction of the disciples who concluded that it is not advantageous to marry this is interpreted by some Evangelicals as voidance the powers of the husband to divorce a wife under any circumstance, as they are expected to forgive their spouse.18The ethical issue applicable to the of age(predicate) Testament bill of divorce allowed by Moses is that the Bill is meant to protect the women from the buffoonery of men, so that they can re-marry rather than be outcasts.some(a) Evangelicals justified campaign for divorce to be desertion (by either spouse) and evidence of physical step against the wife. There is also a Pauline privilege in (1st Corinthians 715) which allows a believing wife to be free from an unbelieving husband who wants a divorce. There are resultant Christian ethical debates concerning the modalities of the freedom, whether it allows re-marrying or die harding single till death.Contrastingly, Liberal Christians see the scriptural dialogues on divorce as being applicable to the historical contexts of their various quantify, thusl y divorce is permitted according to the merit of each grimace. Marriage characterized with physical yell is seen as a marriage pledge violation, whereby divorce is granted.19The American inception of no fault divorce regulation in the 1960s and mid-seventies weakened the marriage institution, as spouses obtained divorces against their partners wish. Similarly, despite independence from the secular laws of the day, free-handed Christians amidst their objective application of divorce laws was criticized for being pro-secular because of contractual approaches used alternatively of covenant obligation by some Christians.20The Neo-orthodox view turned out to be permissive.Neo-Orthodox Christians are permissive due to their existential system which sees rule book precepts as only relevant to the culture of when they were admonished hence they could not be categorically applied to our times. Therefore they established no ethical suit for opposing divorce.21THE ABRAHAMIC FAITHS AND I NTERFAITH DIALOGUEThe Abrahamic faith is used to make fibre to Judaism, Christianity, Islam and other religions that trace their ghostlike culture back to Abraham.22The platform which religions and cultures dally to exchange views for better understanding of each other is called the interfaith dialogue. The dialogue was prompted by the WCC (World Council of Churches) in 1961, when fledgling Asian Churches needed to coexist with diverse Asian religions.23Funda amiablely, the existence of diverse social issues such as universal proposition poverty has prompted the study and use of ethical approaches to interfaith dialogues. Examples are medical and economic ethics.24The Medical ethical considerations are evoked in several issues like Euthanasia, Abortion, Ecology, DNA researches etc. I will be examining the Moslem laws on abortion the next.ISLAMIC FAITH ON ABORTION AND DIVORCEIslamic faith which is based on the Quran and the leadership of prophesier Mohammed is guided by five pi llars of faith, of which two are faith in one God and at least one pilgrimage to Mecca. other(a) admonitions require taking care of orphans, prisoners and desisting from adultery, unfair business practices and unwarranted killings.25Some Muslims prohibit abortion. The area of ethical contention is the actual time sense is given to a formed foetus. This is termed ensoulment which some Muslims take as 16 weeks into the pregnancy.However, abortion performed prior to the completion of 16th week is accepted if the wellness of the mother is endangered or if the baby is under the threat of mental or physical malformation. Another consideration is if the well-being of the family is not release to be properly sustained because of the child.26The Islamic religion takes abortion as being immoral in view the revered value of life as indicated in Surah 1731 which states that Slay not your Children.killing of them is a great sin. Nevertheless, an Islamic consequentialism holds the mother answe rable to the aborted child at belief day this is supported by verses from Surah 81, verses 7-14.27Surah is a supportive reference in Islam. Abortion applied to pre-marital pregnancy is allowed because the sin of having a child out of wedlock is considered worse than abortion.28Concerning divorce, Islam encourages the termination of irreconcilable marriages in good faith rather than co-existence of spouses in bitterness.There is an injunction for settling differences through relatives of spouses.Nevertheless, where this intermediation fails then divorce can be instituted, (Quran 435). Mubarat is the term used to describe mutually divorce by couples without court proceedings. Procedures called fasakh or Khula are based on the initiation of divorce by the woman. However, talaq (meaning to separate) is used to harbinger the divorce instigated by the husband. This can be done without much ordained protocols but must be verbalized or documented.29The traditional laws of the Jews will b e examined next.JUDAISM ON ABORTION AND DIVORCEJudaism as practiced by the Jews precedes Christianity which became distinct in the first Century at the time when Apostle Paul and Peter had contentions with the Jews. The Bible book of Acts Chapter 15, recorded the deviations of the gentiles from the Law of Moses. This caused an argument astir(predicate) the acceptance of uncircumcised Gentiles into the community of believers. Some scholars take the advent of Judaism to be the Biblical time of Abraham while others choose the time of Moses.30Nonetheless, two out of the many beliefs of Judaism are as follows 1) God made a covenant with his people (the Hebrews) through Moses which is the Ten Commandments. 2) Abrahams offspring are to be the ideal model for all nations to emulate in preparation for the coming of the future christ who will rule the world in harmony and fairness.31In proportion to the Islamic faith, high regard is given to the value of life, but the safety of the pregnan t woman remains paramount.Nevertheless, the law of Judaism on abortion assumes the insignificance of fertilized testis cells until the 40th day of pregnancy when it is taken as part of the womans body. Judaism allows abortion within the first 40 days of pregnancy but does not permit it thereafter, till full term. Judaism ethically upholds that the foetus is a part of the human body that must not be damaged.32The Jewish law allows sanction of persons who cause miscarriage due to a physical engagement that involve pregnant women.Furthermore, intended abortion on an advance pregnancy that threatens the mother in any circumstances would have to be doubtlessly established. The baby is literally considered as trying to kill the mother, in which case severing the limbs of the baby and other similar acts is allowed to save the mother.A decisive aspect of applying the abortion law by the Rabbis (who are in institutionalize of the Judaism laws) is the equal importance given to the life of the baby and the mother at the moment the babys head is on the way out of the mother.33The issues of divorce cannot be addressed without talking about the marriage tradition of the Jews.Judaism upholds the sanctity and virtue of marriage to such an extent that the Talmud (sacred writings) states that even the altar sheds tears during musical interval of couples. Although formal grounds for divorce do not exist, it is recognized that some circumstances make it inevitable. The divorce is predicated on the agreement of the couple and it involves accompaniment called the get which is the security of divorce. There are no hindrances placed against disassociate couples who want to get back together in marriage. However priests are prohibited from marrying a divorcee.The certificate of divorce (the get) specially written by a scribe (in the presence of a judge) is traditionally kept by the woman, and must be made available whenever she wants to re-marry. In modern times the rabbinic co urts keep the get and issue the woman with a certificate in place of it.There is a serious ethical issue that the woman cannot re-marry if there is no evidence of the death of her husband. This situation is called Agunah, which implies that the woman is bound to the husband.It is generally expected that anyone who breaches divorce conditions are not allowed to be integrated into the Jewish community.34BUDHISM ON ABORTION AND DIVORCEThis religion has its origin from India in the 6th Century with Siddhartha Gautama (Known as Buddha, the enlightened one). Buddhism is a spiritual way of life rather than a religion. Beliefs range from non-existence of a theology and that all things are being constantly transformed, hence the belief in re-incarnation, decency, understanding and reflection.35Over 300 million Buddhists worldwide have no doctrinal guidance on abortion. They however believe in re-incarnation which stands against abortion, therefore consider it ethically wrong, although not to o keen on its heart and soul prohibition by law. Nevertheless, another Buddhist expectation is the decision of abortion to be exclusively that of the pregnant woman. In Japan abortion is rampant and there is a post abortion ceremony called Mizuko kuyo done by Buddhist priest to assist women in recovering from the after personnel of abortion.36The following paragraph will cover the Buddhist view on divorce.Buddhism does not see marriage as a core religious matter. They view non-entanglement with basic family life as a path to greater levels of monkish Buddhist practice, rather than the low-grade lay position where one is free to raise a family. An example was set by the Buddha himself at 29 years of age when he left his family to remain chaste till the end of his life.37Buddhist tenets support moral chastity where marriages remain intact for the sake of the children. Separated couples are encouraged to re-unite. The man who chooses celibate life must renounce his wife so that sh e is free to hook up with38.CONCLUSIONWorldwide moral laws made from the Ten Commandments are jolly entrenched in most religions and secular regulations39. Needless to say that ethics imparted through religion will have most impact on religious peoples behaviour. I discovered from my findings that most religions have some kind of diversity based on ethical principles (such as hedonism and consequentialism) considered in creating the church doctrine of their subdivisions. Just as the Christians views vary, so is the specific application of certain tenets of the Abrahamic faiths in various countries. These variations are also present in the Buddhist faith where disparities in India, Japan and other countries are considered.All facts point to the use of ethical principles to determine religious creeds. The same fact is applicable to the sure trend in interfaith dialogues such that participants unavoidably approach most themes brought forward, within the framework of ethical agendas . This has created awareness for the study of ethics by those already equipped with vast knowledge of their faiths.

Miniature Wireless Inertial and Magnetic Sensors Research

Miniature Wireless inertial and Magnetic Sensors ResearchAn object in crusade tends to stay in bowel movement unless an external phalanx acts upon it. Similarly, if the object is at rest, it will abide at rest unless an un endd troops acts upon it.When a force acts on an object, it will cause the object to accelerate. The larger the view of the object, the hugeer the force will need to be to cause it to accelerate.Sir Isaac Newton.Throughout centuries, people were fascinate with the sphere of motion. In fact, several disciplines were created, in which laws of physics and mechanics ar applied to objects or biological brasss in order to study the action of the forces acting upon them. One of those disciplines is biomechanics, which involves, among others, the study of the kinetics and kinematics of the human body.Locomotion is maven of the primary responsibilitys of the human body (Moore et al. 2010) and studying its characteristics and its effects on the musculo diminis hed system is of great importance, especi on the wholey in our snips, when musculoskeletal disorders be be very high amongst the top debilitating unsoundnesss mankindwide, according to the World wellness Organisation (Brooks 2006 Cross et al. 2014 St. John 2015).Degenerative musculoskeletal diseases, much(prenominal) as osteoarthritis (OA) atomic number 18 around prevalent in the elderly existence, of 55 days and older (Reginster 2002). Over the past decades, the United Nations reported a steady increase in the life expectancy of the world population (Oeppen and Vaupel 2008), which marked a concomitant increase in the number of years in which sufferers need to manage the disease (Cross et al. 2014), thereby not exclusively degradeing the quality of life of the patient provided also pose extra strain on the health c be system.Although OA is an autoimmune disease and its origins atomic number 18 not yet amply understood, the literature suggests that in much or less patients OA shadow be caused by other degenerative processes such as femorisoacetabular impingement (FAI) (Benedetti et al. 1998 Ganz et al. 2001), articulatio genus varum or genu valgum (Moore et al. 2010), which gestate a untold earlier onset than OA. Early diagnosis in such cases could c are pr way out or postpone the onset of OA in the patients vocalizes. Motion outline has been widely tested as a means of diagnosing skeletal misalignment processes, such as the ones mentioned above.The human articulatio genus phrase is not alone the largest joint in the human body, but due to its position and weight comportment properties, also one of the most injurie and disease prone skeletal bluster (Moore et al. 2010). After all, stifle joint OA is one of the most prevalent types of arthritis affect the world population (Cross et al. 2014). Moreover, the knee joint is often used in trial impression of concept studies, as a simplified biomechanical hinge joint ( blind et al. 2014), which only allows rotation rough its main axis the bend extension axis, reservation it ideal for the purpose of the current study. The motion to be analysed in the adjacent chapters will be knee flexion-extension during dynamic walking conditions.Amongst the most usual motion epitome tools are the marker base optic motion capture systems and their associated protocols. Optical motion capture is often per take formed in the science lab with very expensive equipment and using this type of equipment in a non- science laboratory ground environment presents probative limitations which can compromise the accuracy of the acquired data. However, the differences betwixt the laboratory setting and a natural environment in which a ride is carried out could affect the manner in which the patient conducts himself.It is therefore of great importance to find an appropriate motion analysis tool which can be used accurately in a non-laboratory rear environment, is exploiter friendly, requires a short set up time and is cost effective.The screen background of the current thesis is to combine the use of state of the art equipment and a motion capture and computational data processing protocol which allows biomechanical analysis of human motion in a non-laboratory based environment.The purpose of the study is to test the applicability, feasibility and reliability of using a network of receiving set inertial sensors and a designated data acquisition and processing protocol to respect human knee flexion-extension during gait in a non-laboratory based environment.success justy proving that using such a technique in a non-laboratory based environment is applicable and reliable, could not only offer an ambulatory, and more rapid, exploiter friendly, and cost effective ersatz to the optical motion capture gold standard, used currently in the laboratory, the applications of such a technique would be spread across numerous fields, e.g. diagnostics and prev ention of disease, physical repair, ergonometry, applied science of prosthetic limbs.ObjectivesThe objectives of the current study are to perform a serial publication of experiments using a network of miniature wireless inertial and magnetised sensors, in conjunction with a data processing protocol, proposed by blind et. al (2014) and described in detail in the following chapters, in order to validate the system for use in a non-laboratory based environment.The experiments will have the following purposesRuling out any gyro bias.Testing the accuracy of the gyroscope sensors and the methodology proposed by seel et. al (2014) for deriving a rotation angle from gyroscope data, against a robotic frame-up gold standard.Testing the accuracy with which the cameras of the optical motion capture system track the markers in the measurement volume.Testing the methodology proposed by seel et. al (2014) for calculating a rotation angle by corporate trust gyroscope and accelerometer data, ag ainst the Vicon calibration wand.Validating the above mentioned method for calculating knee flexion-extension angles during gait, against the Vicon camera system current silver standard for human motion capture.Comparing knee flexion-extension angles from gait recorded in a laboratory- and a non-laboratory based environment, with the sensor system and processed with the protocol proposed by Seel et. al (2014).AimsBy following these objectives, the aims of the current study are to show the following set of null hypothesesH01 The sensor system and proposed protocol function together with high accuracy.H02 There are no statistically significant differences amongst knee flexion-extension angles recorded during gait with the sensor system, and the ones recorded with the optical motion capture system.H03 There are no statistically significant differences between knee flexion-extension angles recorded with the sensors system in the laboratory, and the ones recorded outdoors. inning and pathology of the human knee jointThe lower limbs of the human body (Fig 2.1), are part of the appendicular skeleton (Gerhardt et al. 2012). The leg is formed of three longsighted beats, the femur constituting the thigh study and the tibia and fibula constituting the bones of the lower leg (Rabuffetti and Crenna 2004).The femur (Fig 2.2A) is the largest bone in the human body. Proximally, the femur articulates with the pelvis, to form the hip joint. Distally, the femur articulates with the tibia (Fig 2.2A) to form the knee joint (Fig 2.2B)(Joseph 2014).The femur is positioned diagonally at bottom the thigh, forming an alignment axis along the line of force of the quadriceps femoris muscle surrounding it, which can be delineate by drawing a line from the anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS) to the vegetable marrow of the patella (Fig 2.2C)(Moore et al. 2010).The tibia is around vertically positioned within the shank, forming an alignment axis virtually parallel to the vertic al gravitational axis, traversing the centre of the patella. The alignment of the knee joint is greatly influenced by the angle between the quadriceps muscle and the patellar tendon, called the Q angle (Fig 2.2C)(Moore et al. 2010).The knee joint is delineate by large articulary surfaces, with a joint capsule consisting of a fibrous external layer and an internal synovial membrane, lining all surfaces of the articular cavity which are not covered by hyaline cartilage (Drake et al. 2012 Moore et al. 2010) .The hyaline cartilage, covering the bony extremities of the synovial joint, lowers friction between the elements and additional structures, such as articular discs, fat pads and tendons may be present in this type of joint (Ellis 2006).Mechanically, the knee is a comparatively weak structure, its stability being passing leechlike on the skill of the soft tissue surrounding it. The most stable position of the knee joint is when a person is standing up right and the knee is fully extended. In this position, the medial rotation of the femoral condyles on the articular surface of the tibia, creates a passive lock, which is inactivated when the femur rotates subsequentlyally to allow flexion (Moore et al. 2010).The primary functions of the human lower limbs are support and locomotion (Drake et al. 2012 Ellis 2006 Moore et al. 2010). Functions in which the knee joints, along with the other joints of the lower limbs, play a decisive role.Human gait, for instance, is a complex motion which, when occurring on a coplanar surface, can be divided in two phases, containing 7 contribute events. One gait cycle (Fig 2.3) consists of a stance phase (60% of the keep down action) and a swing phase (40% of the total action), corresponding to a whiz step made by one leg.From a biomechanical point of view, joints are often classified according to their ability to move across a defined number of axes using mechanical pretenses. The knee joint for causa is often consider ed to be a hinge (Fig 2.4), acting like a fulcrum between two levers, represented by the femur and tibia (Moore et al. 2010 Zatsiorsky 1998).However, the movements of the knee joint are a widely discussed subject and there are at least four points of view in the literature concerning the wane identification of the flexion-extension axis of the knee joint (Zatsiorsky 1998).The flexion-extension axis is recognized as being the main axis of rotation of the tibiofemoral joint, however, it was reported that when the knee is fully extended an endo-exo rotation of the tibia with respect to the femoral condyles occurs (Ellis 2006 Fick 1911a Hollister et al. 1993 Moore et al. 2010). Furthermore, Hollister et al. (1993) reported that full extension of the knee is accompanied by an additional abduction-adduction of the tibia.Firstly, based on the Reuleaux method, researchers claimed that the knee flexion-extension axis is instantaneous and displaces during motion (Blacharski and Somerset 1975 Frankel et al. 1971 Schmidt 1973 Soudan and Auderkercke 1979 Zuppinger 1904). However, this view was highly criticised by (Panjabi et al. 1982), who claimed that the flawed experimental designs of the previously mentioned researchers led to inaccuracies in their results.Secondly, a helical rather than simple rotation occurring about a flexion-extension axis, which changes its penchant during motion, and about an independent tibial endo-exo rotation axis, was suggested (Braune and Fischer 1891 Bugnion 1892 Zuppinger 1904) and later reviewed by (Fick 1911b), (Steindler 1955), and (Strasser 1917).However, Fick later suggested that the knee flexion-extension axis was a fixed axis located in the distal femur, traversing the squint and medial condyle posteriorly (Fick 1911a). A hypothesis which was supported by (Elias et al. 1990) findings, which further suggested an involvement of the surrounding ligaments in the motion.Finally, (Hollister et al. 1993) claimed that knee flexion-extens ion is then dependent on the movement of the collateral and cruciate ligaments and that therefore, mechanically, knee motion occurs about an infinite number of axes.Nevertheless, most biomechanical models used in the literature for assessing motion capture data, assume a fixed flexion-extension axis for the knee (Cutti et al. 2010 Ehrig et al. 2007 Seel et al. 2014).The physical aspects of the musculoskeletal system are, however, not the only factors concerning skeletal kinematics. On a physiological level, although often considered invariable, bones undergo constant remodelling under the influence of mechanical stimuli. Bone remodelling is, in fact, a constant balance between osteogenesis (the process of bone formation) and osteoclastogenesis (the process of bone resorption), processes which regulate bone spate and are highly dependent on mechanical render and strain (Marieb 2009).The effects of mechanical stimuli on the skeletal environment have been extensively studied in the past and mathematical models, such as Frosts mechanostat, based on the opening that the human skeleton evolves for and serves mechanical inevitably primarily (Frost 1987), have been developed for a better understanding of this utensil.In Frosts view, the skeleton has an in-built mechanical feedback system which responds to increase or decrease in mechanical fill up or hormonal changes by adjusting the bone mass so that it is specially distributed for optimal mechanical function (Frost 1987).Although Frosts mathematical model took into account very important parameters, such as Youngs modulus for bone, compass point strain, peak stress and changes in density, it did not take into account the ability of bone cells to adapt to the environment (Turner 1999).However, Turners mathematical theory for bone biology, called the article of faith of cellular accommodation (Turner 1999), based on Wolffs law of bone transformation (Wolff 1982) and Frosts mechanostat (Frost 1987), offered a n alternative version, which correct for flaws discovered in the initial models (Turner 1999).In 1982, Julius Wolff proposed a theory which stated that high stress-generated potentials can act as electrical stimuli for the activating of osteocyte cells within bone tissue, which in response could trigger an anabolic event following activation of bone forming cells (Wolff 1982).Turners principle of cellular accommodation corrected for the assumption in Frosts mechanostat that suggested that cellular sensitization is a continuous and long process, that can eventually lead to complete loss of bone mass or ossification of bone tissue (Turner 1999).In contrast to that, the principle of cellular accommodation stated that mechanical loading and unloading indeed stimulates bone formation and, respectively bone resorption, but that, over time the bone cells become immune to loading cycles (provided the load has an equal grade over time) and their metabolic rate decreases.Nevertheless, mech anical stress and strain are not exclusively affecting the bones within the skeletal system, but also the cartilage and surrounding tissue. Changes in the mechanical environment or properties of cartilage within a joint, can generate stimuli, which initiate degenerative processes (Boyd and Ronsky 1997 Churchill et al. 1998b Davis and DeLuca 1996), e.g. osteoarthritis.OA is a progressive disorder, which causes the loss of articular cartilage, exposing the joint extremities, where the direct connection between bones results in ulceration and calcification of the tissue.OA is one of the worlds leading debilitating diseases, which lowers the quality of life and can lead to immobility of the patient. The exact mechanism of OA is not clear yet, however, there are a series of factors which researchers found to play a role in the onset, incidence and epidemiology of the disease.For knee OA, these factors hold amongst genetic background, age, gender, obesity (Felson 2004a), and occupationa l (Cooper et al. 1994 Maetzel et al. 1997 McMillan and Nichols 2005) or sports injuries (Roos et al. 1994), local mechanical factors affecting the integrity of the joint, such as muscle weakness, damage to the ligaments and meniscus, joint incongruity and misalignment of femoral condyles on the tibial plateau (Felson 2004b).It has been reported that knee soil in men and obesity in women are amongst the leading and most modifiable causes of onset or progression of knee OA (Felson et al. 2000). Moreover, (Felson 2013) claimed that knee OA is almost always caused by increased forces acting on a joint and that such forces could be a result of knee malalignment (Felson and Hodgson 2014) or a combination of malalignment and obesity (Felson et al. 2004). Causes which can be addressed and treated in order to prevent progression or onset of OA, if identified in timely manner (Felson and Hodgson 2014 Teichtahl et al. 2009).Genu varum (bowed-legs) and genu valgum (knocked-knees) are both cond itions in which the alignment of the knee is affected. Genu varum is defined by a diminish Q-angle (Moore et al. 2010), and is reported to increase mechanical loading in the medial knee compartment by 70-79% (Tetsworth and Paley 1994) even in cases where the varum is as little as 5, which can lead to substantial cartilage loss (Sharma et al. 2008 Teichtahl et al. 2009) and the onset of OA (Brouwer et al. 2007).In contrast, genu valgum is defined by an increased Q-angle (Moore et al. 2010), which is reported to in increases loading in the lateral knee compartment, thereby, increasing the risk of progressive OA 5 fold (Sharma et al. 2001 Teichtahl et al. 2006).Furthermore, (Hsu et al. 1990) and (Kettelkamp et al. 1976) report a correlation between medial lateral forces and knee alignment during standing which, however, is only present in genu varum sufferers during gait (Harrington 1983).Motion analysis has proved to be a utilitarian tool in the study of lower limbs kinematics and di sorders of knee (Andriacchi et al. 1983 Berchuck et al. 1990 Draganich et al. 1991 Kettelkamp et al. 1976 Noyes et al. 1992 Wang et al. 1990) and increasingly more researchers use motion capture systems and biomechanical computational models for the purpose of quantitative and numerical motion analysis (Alexander and Andriacchi 2001 Bonci et al. 2015 Cappozzo et al. 2005 Cereatti and Della Croce 2006 Cutti et al. 2010 Davis et al. 1991 Ehrig et al. 2007 Ferrari et al. 2010a Garofalo et al. 2009 Haid and Breitenbach 2004 Kratzenstein et al. 2010b Leardini et al. 2005 Luinge et al. 2012 Pasciuto et al. 2015 Roetenberg et al. 2003 Schepers et al. 2010 Seel et al. 2014 Taylor et al. 2005).Motion capture systems and protocolsDuring the past decades, quantifiable motion analysis has been widely studied and the need for developing a low cost and user friendly technique, which enables motion capture in a non-laboratory based environment, has been emphasised time and time again (Calliess e t al. 2014 Gaffney et al. 2011 Liu et al. 2011 Pfau et al. 2005 Soangra and Lockhart 2012 Vlasic et al. 2007 Wixted et al. 2010 Yang et al. 2011 cabbage and Hu 2004, 2008).Quite a few motion capture systems were developed in order to aid motion studies. These systems were reviewed extensively (Frey et al. 1996 Hightower and Borriello 2001 Meyer et al. 1992 Welch and Foxlin 2002) and can be largely classified in the following categories robot aided, visual and non-visual (Vlasic et al. 2007 Zhou and Hu 2004, 2008). zombi aided motion captureThis technique employs the use of electromechanical systems, such as Gypsy (Meta Motion) and ShapeWrap (Measurand), called exoskeletons, which the subjects are required to wear, in order to count joint angles from electric resistance. These systems are not restricted to laboratory use, however, they are uncomfortable and motion restricting even in the most updated versions of the computer hardware (Vlasic et al. 2007).